The movie industry

The movie industry has already established its roots in this lifetime, and probably even in the next. Hollywood itself is a historical entity; it has its own life, its own people, and its own followers and worshippers. It is like a cult that creates a huge amount of money every single day. It has invaded not only the big screen, but our televisions and music players as well. In fact, the three categories of entertainment have often intertwined and exchanged characters. We obsess over the movies that we feel like we can relate to. Maybe it’s because of the theme, or the ending of the story that has really touched our lives.Or it was a favorite book that we have read a million times that can now live outside our imaginations and can visually please us on the big screen. Or we watch a movie simply because we adore the actors in it, so much so that we know what they ate for breakfast for the whole week. We have been following the movie industry for a long time now. We praise and w orship those who make the biggest money on its opening week and almost not mention those who do not even make it to the big screen and directly to DVDs. Money is the ultimate cause and end of this industry. And it is said that money is also the reason why the ratings exist.Almost all movies have a rating by the MPAA. However, the accuracy and the legitimacy of these ratings are being questioned not only by the film industry players, but mostly by the people the MPAA swore to exist for, the American parents and their innocent children. The issue that exists now is not whether or not parents should allow their children to watch movies that have been labeled as restricted for them, but the integrity of the ratings itself is questionable. The controversies surrounding the ratings of Hollywood movies cloud over the fact that the principal reason for the existence of the ratings is responsibility and sensibility.Their goal as an association is to be of assistance to the American parents t o help them guide their children in restricting and choosing which movies to watch. As it was stated by Jack Valenti, former MPAA president, in an article that he wrote, â€Å"To offer to parents some advance information about movies so that parents can decide what movies they want their children to see or not to see (Valenti). † But several critiques and hullabaloos have been shed in lieu of the existence of this ratings organization.Some say that the board members are biased towards the producers and directors that they have come to love. Some say that the members of this board abhor movies that targets issues that they are sensitive about. It seems that the existence of such an organization cannot really protect anybody, if that is what they are really for. If I was a parent, and I was asked if I should allow my children to watch movies that were labeled unsuitable for them by a group of people that have questionable goals and motives, I would say yes, I will definitely al low them.I would advocate allowing children to watch restricted stamped movies because I know that even if the ratings do not exist, the parents will be responsible enough to discuss issues with their children firsthand. The parents have the discretion when it comes to watching these movies with their children. Parents exist for guidance and support, for explanation and for realization. Some parents are willing to be open and discuss important life changing issue with their children and do not encounter any problems with it.Some parents shy away from the issue because they think their children would not understand. But this is not true. School-aged children are old and mature enough to try to understand issues. According to Erik Erikson’s theory of developmental tasks, school-aged children are already curious as to how and why things operate the way they do. Their intense curiosities may be able to teach them a lot already, especially if someone they trust, like their parents , will be delivering the information to them firsthand (Kaplan). There is nothing wrong with a child knowing some sensitive topics at such a young age.In fact, children today are very aware of global issues and how these things affect them. The MPAA can stamp their ratings on movies as long as they want and they could, but they really could not stop any parent from allowing their children to watch movies. Secondly, I deem it unnecessary for a ratings board such as the MPAA to exist. Ratings are arbitrary and subjective; the people who stamp these ratings on movies are people just like us, human beings that can be subjected to persuasions and influences. Some filmmakers are making their case against the MPAA heard.According to Scoot Bowles of USA Today, Harvey Weinstein’s movie Grindhouse was in the brink of being rated NC-17, a rating that cannot only lower your sales, but can totally cross out your movie from existence. So Weinstein’s game plan was to make Quentin Tar antino, infamous creator the Kill Bill series, which also happens to be the director of Grindhouse, face the debate with the MPAA (Bowles). Apparently, the board loves Tarantino, and instead of giving the Grindhouse an NC-17 rating, they got an R with little trimming in the horror exploitation film. Also, rating is even voluntary (The Classification and Rating Administration).Film makers can opt not to get their movies rated, this is a freedom of choice. However if this is the case, why is it that almost all films are getting ratings when it isn’t really a requirement? There are issues surrounding this statement. Some are saying that it is a taboo when a film is not rated, or unrated, mostly because unrated films are foreign films, obscure independent films, direct-to-video films, pornographic films, made-for-TV films, large format (IMAX) films, or documentaries that are not expected to play outside the art house market, films that are not going to hit the top ten box office sales any time soon (Medved).In addition to that, when a film is unrated, some cinemas of DVD stores do not sell them anymore, which is equal to lesser revenues (Bowles). Films rated NC-17 are also almost unable to sell, hence when a film gets this rating, the makers usually plea for a change in rating. The film makers and the MPAA members agree on a new rating, with a compromise. There would be more cuts and whatever else the MPAA board decides to do. This in itself is questionable. When a rating is made, the rating should stick.How can the organization prove to the parents their worthy is they accept negotiations? Ratings should be given and they should be final. The NC-17 rating is most dreaded because not only will this cut your market in half, but will also make an impression already before it can be given the chance to be seen and heard. There are currently five categories of MPAA ratings. First is the G rating, which means General Audiences-All Ages Admitted, the PG rating, P arental Guidance Suggested.Some Material May Not Be Suitable For Children, PG-13 is Parents Strongly Cautioned. Some Material May Be Inappropriate For Children Under 13, next is the R rating, or Restricted, Under 17 Requires Accompanying Parent Or Adult Guardian and finally the NC-17 or No One 17 And Under Admitted rating (Valenti). Regardless of rating, children should be allowed to see works of art. Movie making is creativity at its best, for a targeted audience. I believe that movie makers should be given this freedom to express their art and their visions, how they see the world.And as their audience, people should be given the chance to see it and appreciate it, give the applause it deserves. Unfortunately, movie making has become a money making industry. Some independent films are really worthy of the exposure, but because they are being crushed by the bigger movie moguls, they cannot compete with it. The MPAA is even said to be biased towards the movie moguls in the industry (Medved). Eventually it will all boil down to choice. It is the movie maker’s choice to heed the advice of the MPAA and accept their ratings.It is the MPAA board’s choice to give a rating to the movie. Most importantly, it is the audience’s choice whether or not to see the film, whether or not to allow their children to watch it. Restrictions are just guidance, a reminder that there may be some issue or graphic scenes that the MPAA deem not suitable for such an audience, but it is still up to the parents to assert their final decision. Responsible parenthood can immediately and automatically turn down the tables for the MPAA or the movie industry itself.Nobody really has to be told about their morals, for it is subjective, it depends on the individual. The system at how movies are rated is questionable, no doubt, but the way parents discipline their children is not. They can opt to allow their child to see R rated movies, and the consequences of such an act, may it be good or bad, is theirs for the taking. Works Cited: Kaplan. The Basics. New York: Kaplan Publishing, 2007. Medved, Michael. â€Å"R-Rated Movies Not A Good Investment For Hollywood. † 2000. Texas A&M University. 10 December 2008 . â€Å"Questions & Answers: Everything You Always Wanted To Know About The Movie Rating System. † 2000. The Classification and Rating Administration. 10 December 2008 . Bowles, Scott. â€Å"Debating the MPAA's mission. † 2007. USA Today. 10 December 2008 . Valenti, Jack. â€Å"How it all began. † 2000. MPA. 10 December 2008 .

Mutations in Dna Essay

Although most mutants are either impersonal or harmful they are besides the natural stuff for development. Such mutants from allelomorphs. surrogate signifiers of a given cistron that may bring forth differences in construction or map such as black. brown or blond hair in worlds. or different coupling calls in toads. Phases of Mitosis~1 ) Parent cell.2 ) Chromosomes make indistinguishable transcripts of themselves.3 ) They line up along the Centre.4 ) They move apart.5 ) Two girl cells form with indistinguishable chromosomes to the parent cell. Homologous chromosomes have the same cistrons. but each homologue may hold the same allelomorphs of some cistrons and different allelomorphs others. The cell rhythm is tightly controlled. Both during the embryologic development and during the care and fix of the grownup organic structure. come oning through the cell rhythm is regulated chiefly by two interacting procedures. ( 1 ) Production of. and responses to. growing factors that by and large speed up the cell rhythm ; ( 2 ) Intracellular checkpoints that stop the cell rhythm if jobs such as mutants in the Deoxyribonucleic acid or misalignment of the chromosomes have occurred. Most malignant neoplastic diseases develop because one of both of these procedures goes amiss. Many different molecules control the cell rhythm ; Porto-oncogenes: Any cistron whose proteins tends to advance mitotic cell division if called a proton-oncogene. The cistrons for growing factors. turn factor receptors. and some cyclins and Cdks are proton-oncogenes. In most instances. advancement through the cell rhythm existences when a growth-stimulating protein such as cuticular growing factor ( EGF ) binds to a receptor on the surface of a cell. This stimulates the synthesis of cyclins which bind to Cdks and trip them. Therefore. these proton-oncogenes are indispensable to the normal control of the cell rhythm. Tumor suppresser cistrons: The protein merchandises of tumour suppresser cistrons prevent uncontrolled cell division and the production of girl cells with mutated Deoxyribonucleic acid. both of which are common in tumours. Cdks modulate the activity of other proteins by adding a phosphate group to them. One such protein is Rb. Normally. Rb inhibits written text of several cistrons whose protein merchandises are required for DNA synthesis. Phosphorylation of Rb by Cdks relieves this suppression in the G. stage of the cell rhythm. leting the cell to continue to the S stage and retroflex its DNA. This concatenation of events. from growing cabal stimulation to phosphorylation of Rb. ensures that the cell rhythm starts up merely when the organic structure needs it to. Another tumour suppresser protein. called P53 proctors the unity of the cell’s DNA and indirectly regulates Rb activity. Healthy cells with integral DNA. contain small P53. However. when Deoxyribonucleic acid has been damaged ( for illustration by ultraviolet beams in sunshine ) . P53 degrees rise. The P53 proteins that inhibit Cdks. If Cdks are inhibited so Rb is non phosphorylated and DNA synthesis is blocked ; this prevents the cell from bring forthing girl cells with damaged Deoxyribonucleic acid. The P53 stimulated the synthesis of DNA fix enzymes. After the Deoxyribonucleic acid has been repaired. P53 degrees decline. Cdks become active. Rb becomes phosphorylated and the cell enters the S stage. If the Deoxyribonucleic acid can non be repaired. P53 triggers a particular from of cell decease called programmed cell death. in which the cell cuts up its Deoxyribonucleic acid and efficaciously commits suicide.

How Tobacco Companies Targeting Teens Research Paper

How Tobacco Companies Targeting Teens - Research Paper Example Almost thirty six percent of smokers are foreseen of dying due to smoking. This will result in losing two decades of dynamic life. Many big tobacco corporations are spending almost $10.5 billion every year as a way of promoting their brands and a large percentage of their efforts in marketing reach the teenagers directly. Reports issued showed that a fifty-two percent increase on market spending by the tobacco industry was viewed in 1998-2008 (Pampel, 11). According to the report, the expenditures in marketing reduced from â€Å"$12.5 billion to $9.9 billion in 2006-2008† (Pampel, 12). Marketing on the tobacco that is smokeless has increased from 2005. Various documents in the tobacco industry, exposed in the lawsuits of tobacco, reveal that the company’s manufacturing tobacco products have identified teenagers as their main market, conducted the habits used by the teenagers in smoking and created products or brands and developed marketing strategies aimed at the teenag ers. I would like to start by explaining that large populations of teens in the United States prefer using camel, Newport and Marlboro brands of tobacco. These companies aim the teenagers by using images. The teenagers think that these marketing strategies used will make them be sexy, cool, rugged or allured. These companies manufacturing tobacco products use the images and associate the images with smoking. The teenagers are on the other hand convinced that smoking will make them be popular, seem as mature people, considered as cool people or fit in a certain category of people (Pampel, 13). Tobacco companies have continued to market their products to vulnerable underage groups despite claims that their advertisements no longer target kids intentionally. It is argued that the younger generation is targeted mostly as they form future customers (Warner. 1211-1213). These companies knowingly place advertisements on popular magazines with an aim of reaching as many young people

The Legal Issues Scenarios Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Legal Issues Scenarios - Case Study Example â€Å"Top off† social security and unemployment benefits arise in the case of Heinrich while in the case of Christine, discrimination in the selection, mandatory language tests and pension requirements are at issue. In the case of Max, the legal issue that arises is the right to equal access to loans for education, while in Klara’s case there may be the problem of sex discrimination. Additionally, legal issues connected to reasons for the proposed deportation of the family must also be taken into account. Article 18 of the EC Treaty allows the right to free movement of persons within the European Union, while Article 12 lays out a general principle of non-discriminatory conduct to be applied to all EU citizens. Directive 2004/38 has in fact expanded the scope of Article 12 and has put in place new provisions for the free movement of persons within the EU. Close has argued for supranational democratic citizenship for the European Union, on the basis that citizenship regulated by national considerations is undemocratic in its origin.1 The major issue that arises in the case of both Christine and Heinrich is the question of equal pay for equal work, which is mandated by Article 141 of the EC Treaty. However, before this aspect can be assessed, it must be determined whether they first qualify as â€Å"workers†. A general definition of worker has been set out in Lowrie Blum2 stating the essential feature that characterizes a worker is that â€Å"for a certain period of time a person performs services for and under the direction of another person for which he receives remuneration.† This will be applicable to Heinrich, Christine, and Klara who will all qualify as workers and will be entitled to a range of community rights applicable in all Member States3.

Discuss the theme of dream and reality in The Metamorphosis by Franz Essay

Discuss the theme of dream and reality in The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka - Essay Example Samsa also finds an apartment for the family to live in. "As Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from a troubled dream he found himself transformed in his bed into a monstrous insect. He was lying on his hard, as it were armor-plated, back and when he lifted his head a little he could see his dome-like brown belly divided into corrugated segments on top of which the bed quilt could hardly keep in position and was about to slide off completely. His numerous legs, which were pitifully thin compared to the rest of his bulk, flickered and shimmered helplessly before his eyes. There is a wonderful rhythmic sound to this dreamy narrative passage. Gregor is half-asleep and gradually realizes that the transformation is indeed real and no nightmare. It also occurs to him that he still retains his human memories and human cognitive capacity, which means that the transformation is incomplete (Grà ¼nbein). "Ach Gott, he thought, what an exhausting job Ive picked on! Traveling about day in, day out. Many more anxieties on the road than in the office, the plague of worrying about train connections, the bad and irregular meals, casual acquaintances never to be seen again, never to become intimate friends. The hell with it all!† The metamorphosis, though shocking and striking, is yet grounded in reality. For example, when we go to bed everyday in new surroundings, we are expect to feel a moment of surprise on waking up - a sudden sense of unreality, and this experience must occur repeatedly over in the life of a traveling salesman. It is the sort of thing that makes any sense of continuity in life impossible, as the sense of reality depends upon continuity, upon duration. Also, awakening as a gigantic insect is similar in effect to awakening as Julius Caesar or Benjamin Franklin (Preece 23). Kafka brings about a sardonic tone to the narrative by using a broad range of literary devices. The

Relegation System in Major League Soccer Term Paper

Relegation System in Major League Soccer - Term Paper Example Major League Soccer or what is popularly known as MLS is the official soccer league of United States of America. The tournament is endorsed by United States Soccer Federation and Don Garber is its present commissioner. Major League Soccer (MLS) was started in the year of 1993; however, the first session of competition was staged in the year 1996 with just10 teams. The teams were owned by the franchisees and are operated and functioned by its stakeholders. The present format of MLS has 19 teams who play with each other on a home-away basis. Among the 19 teams, 16 are from the US and the other 3 teams are from Canada. Some of the noticeable teams of the tournament include LA Galaxy, Montreal Impact, Toronto FC Dallas and Real Salt Lake among many others. The first season of the tournament witnessed record attendance however it felt below the expected level from the next season onwards. People started to lose interest in soccer as other sports such as baseball, basketball took the elite positions. The condition revived when players such as David Beckham, Cuauhtemoc Blanco joined the league as players of respective teams. The primary rationale behind the commencement of MLS was to strengthen the national football team of US. The quality of the league was in doubt when the USA was eliminated from the opening stages in the 1998 soccer world cup. Apart from that, 1994 Soccer world cup that was staged in the US was also another reason. The professional league helped the country to bid for the tournament.  ... The first season of the tournament witnessed record attendance however it felt below the expected level from the next season onwards. People started to lose interest on soccer as other sports such as baseball, basketball took the elite positions. The condition revived when players such as David Beckham, Cuauhtemoc Blanco joined the league as players of respective teams (Dure, 2010, p.xvi). The primary rational behind the commencement of MLS was to strengthen the national football team of US. Nonetheless the quality of the league was on doubt, when USA was eliminated from the opening stages in the 1998 soccer world cup. Apart from that, 1994 Soccer world cup that was staged in US was also another reason. The professional league helped the country to bid for the tournament. Formulation of Mission and Vision statements Mission and vision statements are important for running a venture. Also in case of MLS mission and vision statements, holds an important position. MLS was started in the year 1993 for the purpose of establishing a particular objective. Moreover in order to achieve the objective one needs to have clear vision of the future. While on the other hand a mission statement is being used to describe the purposes or aims of the new association. Hence it can be justified that mission and vision statement plays an indispensable role. The newly developed mission and vision statement for MLS are formulated below. Mission Statement To offer the country with new talents in football and also to encourage upcoming talents in the field of soccer. To enthuse the world of sports lovers by showcasing highest quality of entertainment. Vision Statement ‘We

Enterprise and Entrepreneurial Management Assignment - 1

Enterprise and Entrepreneurial Management - Assignment Example Most companies aim to make a business plan as it helps them in attaining stability and growth. Critical appraisal of the business planning process The business planning process itself has a lot of obstacles and this is one of the reasons many organizations do not make any business plans. These organizations in fact rely on the experience of entrepreneurs and top executives. Let us find out the obstacles faced in the business planning process. Idea generation The first step in a business planning process is to document which product or service the firm wants to sell. It is very relevant to find out and be clear on a business idea. Unfortunately, most business ideas may be implemented. This is because the top executives may not have conducted appropriate research on the customer market before coming out with a business idea. Another problem which individuals may face is the financial constraint. Most business ideas may not receive adequate financial funding. There are several problems which may lead to the failure of the idea. One is that the individuals who wish to launch a new product or service may lack the required skill and competence required, makes hurried decisions without making a thorough analysis of the consumer market or may be ignorant about what is to be done. Hence, most product or service ideas may miserably fail (Flint, 2002). ... These objectives need to be formulated in order to chalk out a path to attaining success. Individuals need to emphasize on certain aspects before formulating strategic objectives. These are monitoring alternatives solutions, future trends need to be predicted, problem areas need to be avoided and fixing both short term and long term goals (Ramanujam, Venkatraman & Camillus 1986). However, most planners may not be able to plan these objectives properly. This is because the above mentioned aspects need a lot of attention and lack of thorough research into these aspects may lead to wrong setting of goals. At times, the top management may set up unrealistic and unattainable goals. Market research and analysis Market research and analysis is a thorough analysis of the customer market and also seeks to find out the opportunities, strengths, weaknesses and threats. All in all in seeks to understand the product or the service market. All these aspects need to be researched in order to develo p a thorough understanding of the customer’s needs and accordingly develop specific abilities and investment required for the necessary resources. Sometimes, lack of thorough product or service market understanding, may lead to the focus on the line of product or service be either too broad or too narrow (Slater & Olson 2001). Also the specifications relating to the performance of the product or service, the prices, and the complementary product or service line may affect market analysis and research. If any of these aspects, have not been thoroughly researched then it may lead to severe problem in the implementation of the business plan. According to

Project Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Project - Assignment Example The constructive discussion with the with the various teams of IT, manufacturing, distribution and marketing helped in the charting out of four probable alternative that can be implemented by the company. The alternatives that are identified ranged from operating as separate business, merging all functionalities, merging nothing at all as well as merging some functionality. After weighing out the advantages and disadvantages associated with the four alternatives, the acquiring company has focused on progressing ahead with the alternative associated with merging of some functionality. By opting for the alternative related to merging some functionality, the acquiring company will have a series of unique advantages. Explaining in a more elaborate manner, it can be said that the acquisition of the soft candy company by the client has already increased as well as diversified their product portfolio. The diverse product portfolio will help the company to market their product to a larger group of target audience, who has a liking for either or both hard and soft candy kind of products. In order to gain the maximum amount of mileage in regards to the expansion of the product portfolio, the client company should focus on implementing a series of strategies. The first strategy is to create demand for the company’s expanded product portfolio through strong advertising. The advertising campaign should focus largely on raising awareness for the new soft candy products as well as developing an overall brand for the company. The second strategy is to separately identify and forecast the demand for hard and soft candy products in the various pockets of the domestic market and then sending estimated amount of products to fulfil the variable demand and thereby eliminate the option of either stock out or accumulation of inventory. This method of identifying and forecasting of product demand in the various pockets of the

As the world becomes increasingly polarised where social issues Essay

As the world becomes increasingly polarised where social issues seemingly get lost, how can we encourage future technology and design to engage and augment our future - Essay Example This paper will explore the issue in depth and highlight the application of technology to ceramic design. After the Second World War, the globe experienced a social and economic recession that instilled hopelessness in majority of them. However, modernism emerged, promising to present the glob with hope despite the hardships. The ideologies that defined modernism seemed to be promising a palpable pattern of social responsibility. In the opinion of many, modernism had the capacity to induce change in the living conditions of the people. Therefore, embracing modernism translated to changes in different sectors. In the years that followed, the globe saw technological innovations in agriculture, economy, medicine, and media. In agriculture, technology has registered numerous changes. High levels of mechanization have increased the rates of production in agriculture. As expected, mechanization and forms of technology in agriculture have served to provide enough for the growing population. Sadly though, there are two sides of the inside story (Lee, 2008:61). Whereas some nations have more than they need, the developing world has to rely on support from the developed world. Reports indicate that Europe and America waste food products that could suffice to feed the entire developing world. While some wastage occurs unavoidably during production, a high percentage of wasted agricultural products occur deliberately accounting for about 60 %. The current trends in agricultural production reveal that the developing world only gets wealthier while third world countries remain in ardent poverty. In order to address the challenges of some nations, biotechnology seemed to provide a solution through the development of genetically modified organisms. At first, this technology presented a viable solution to pests, diseases and unfavorable climatic conditions because genetic engineering provided crops with the capacity to withstand all these.

Review of evidence assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Review of evidence assignment - Essay Example A thorough literature review provides a foundation on which to base new knowledge. For a clinical problem, such as OA, it would likely also be necessary to learn as much as possible about the â€Å"status quo† of current procedures relating to the topic, and to review existing practice guidelines or protocols. Normally, researchers have their research critiqued by peers, consultants, or other reviewers to obtain substantive, clinical, or methodological feedback before implementing the plan (Cormack, 2000, 82-85). Moreover, an integrated and critical review of existing research and theory relevant to the topic should provide a solid rationale and evidence in favour of or against contemporary concepts, practice, or guidelines. The ultimate objective of any research is to undertake a systemic search and collection of data and to analyse and interpret them in order to verify or testify existing knowledge (Clarke, 2004, 100-102). Broadly these data can be classified into two variet ies, numerical and descriptive. Depending on the intended type of data, usually a research is designed into different types, and varieties of information may be revealed. However, irrespective of the type of methodology, critical and systemic review of research can serve two purposes. In that sense, critical reviews are both scientific research and the application of common sense. They serve to identify studies relevant to a particular question, to appraise and assess the eligibility of these studies, and to summarise them, using statistical techniques to combine their results, if feasible and appropriate (Chinnock, Siegfried & Clarke, 2005, 367-369). Research methods are techniques used by researchers to structure a study through which information is gathered and analysed to answer the research question. The two alternative paradigms have strong implications for the research

School and Communities Essay Example for Free

School and Communities Essay A school leader guides a student for such a brief moment, but is one of the connections that contribute to a student being successful and allowing for the student to transition easily in the learning environment? According to the recommended readings there is a correlation between the student’s home, community, and the school that facilitates the student’s transitions into and throughout the school system, leading to an environment that supports student success. There are several major transitions starting with kindergarten and progressing to the middle school level, and then onto high school. Each transitional time is critical and requires additional support to continue and to achieve academically. Based on my review of various articles, the following topics are promising directions that have emerged as areas that will make the connection powerful and successful. Family involvement during Kindergarten preparation is essential for young students to achieve to their potential. The importance of being prepared academically for school, and its implications for parents, has been the subject of extensive research and attention. One recent study suggests that fostering parent support and  parent learning about Kindergarten readiness can help ensure that children are adequately prepared to start school (Starkey Klein, 2000; Perroncel, 2000). In my readings it was suggested that a network of social connections that support children and families during the Kindergarten transition are needed, including interactions between teachers and children, children and peers, parents and teachers, and preschool teachers and Kindergarten teachers. While there is an increased amount of evidence about the elements that support Kindergarten readiness, there is also a need to better integrate the early childhood development literature to  fully understand the connections that make a difference and allow the student to be successful. For example, Fantuzzo et al. (2000) conducted a study to assess parent involvement for children in day care, Head Start, and Kindergarten. Studies such as this can begin to build understanding of how parent involvement changes from pre-school to Kindergarten. Future research can also build our understanding of the specific types of family and community connections that provide a strong support network for children, particularly those who come from disadvantaged backgrounds, as they prepare to enter Kindergarten. STUDENT TRANSITION THROUGH EDUCATION LEVELS 3 Despite the continued occurrence of the myth that family and community connections are primarily important at the elementary school level, researchers have begun exploring the effects of school, family, and community connections during transitions to middle and high school as well. Gutman and Midgley (2000) found that during the transition from the elementary level to the middle school level, both school factors and family factors were important to support academic achievement in African American students. Another study found that, contrary to popular belief, middle and high school students do want their parents to be involved, especially in terms of homework help and other home-based types of support and involvement (Catsambis Garland, 1997). This study found that parent involvement does not decline, as expected, but rather shifts as students move into middle and high school. Although they continued to be involved, parents reported increasing dissatisfaction with their role in relationship to the school, especially involving school policy (Catsambis Garland). These results confirm the importance of continued exploration of needs that students have during the transition to middle school and to high school, and roles that families play in supporting these transitions. The impact of school outreach is an important finding. School outreach and invitations to families and community members have a significant impact on the level and quality of family and community connections. In at least three studies, it has been found to have a greater impact than family characteristics on previous student academic achievement (Van Voorhis, 2000; Simon, 2000; Chrispeels Rivero, 2000). Simon found that when schools reach out, and families and community members feel that the school is extending invitations at a personal level, they respond with higher attendance at school-based activities and better quality of family involvement at home. The unique role that schools play in initiating and setting the tone for connections with families and the community cannot be denied. Researchers have also suggested that more research is needed regards to what motivates individual school staff members to reach out to parents and community and how  school staff can be further motivated and supported in building these relationships. STUDENT TRANSITION THROUGH EDUCATION LEVELS 4 There is a growing understanding of the role that relationships between staff in schools and community organizations play in the development of successful collaborations between school and communities. Jehlet al. (2001) suggests that there are â€Å"sticking points,† in organizational cultures and values that can hinder school-community connections. They suggest that these sticking points must be understood and addressed in order to build effective partnerships. These disconnects can be exacerbated by the lack of personal relationships that build trust and understanding between school and community staff (Center for Mental Health in Schools, 1999a). It is clear that family, school, and community connections can benefit children from before the time they enter Kindergarten until after they graduate from high school. Our charge in the educational field of study is to come together to address the issues highlighted in this synthesis paper and to clarify the concept and outcomes of family and community connections with schools. In doing so we will better understand these connections and create the knowledge needed to realize the potential of family, school, and community connections for student learning and student’s success. STUDENT TRANSITION THROUGH EDUCATION LEVELS 5 References Catsambis, S. , Garland, J. E. (1997). Parental involvement in students education during middle school and high school (CRESPAR Report 18). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. ED423328. http://www. csos. jhu. edu/crespar/Reports/report18entire. htm Center for Mental Health in Schools. (1999a). Expanding educational reform to address barriers to learning: Restructuring student support services and enhancing school community partnerships. Los Angeles, CA: Center for Mental Health in Schools. http://smhp. psych. ucla. edu/pdfdocs/Report/Expand. pdf Fantuzzo, J. , Tighe, E. , Childs, S. (2000). Family involvement questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(2), 367-375. Gutman, L. M. , Midgley, C. (2000). The role of protective factors in supporting the academic achievement of poor African American students during the middle school transition. Journal of Youth and  Adolescence, 29(2), 223-249. Jehl, J. , Blank, M. J. , McCloud, B. (2001). Education and community building: Connecting two worlds. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership, Inc. http://www. communityschools. org/combuild. pdf Starkey, P. , Klein, A. (2000). Fostering parental support for children’s mathematical development: An intervention with Head Start families. Early Education and Development, 11(5), 659-680. Van Voorhis, F. L. (2000). The effects of interactive (TIPS) homework on family involvement and science achievement of middle grade students. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Florida.

Reviewing Criticisms Feminist Writers Made Of Criminology Criminology Essay

Reviewing Criticisms Feminist Writers Made Of Criminology Criminology Essay Feminism, according to Mitchell and Oakley (1986:3) suggest that it is easier to define feminism in its absence rather than its presence. Delmar (1986) defines it that, a feminist holds that women suffer discrimination because of their sex, that they have needs which are neglected and unsatisfied, and that the satisfaction of these needs requires a radical change. However, he clearly states that in order distinguish feminists or feminism from the multiplicity of those concerned with women issues, feminism should be defined as a field, even though diverse, but women can make no claim to an exclusive interest in or copyright over problems affecting women. Feminist criminology therefore proceeds from the assertion that women have been highly marginalised and are all too often invisible and when they have been the centre of attention this has not been observed and treated with sympathy. At the heart of feminist criminology, a critique of extant criminology lurks for the reasons below, th e failure to theorise or engage in the empirical study of female offending, the neglect of female victimisation and, particularly, male violence against women and the over concentration on the impact of the criminal justice system on male offenders. Carol Smart (1976) raised two crucial areas of concern. These were; that there was a particular danger of studying women separately from men would cause more marginalisation and this would also lead to the perpetuation of a male dominated criminology and the second one was that, increasing academic attention on female crime could have the unintended and undesirable consequence of increasing public and criminal justice attention on these activities. Smart also argued that, women offenders were not only being treated as criminals but also as having transgressed their gender roles. Edwards (1984:213) said, Female defendants are processed within the criminal justice system in accordance with the crimes which they committed and the extent to which the commission of the act and its nature deviate from appropriate female behaviour. Smart questioned the criminology enterprise and led to a considerable debate on feminism. (Edwards, 1981; Heindensohn, 1985; Rafter and Stanko, 1980; Young, 1996) Pat Carlene (1992) described the idea of feminist criminology as neither desirable nor possible. However, Gelsthorpe and Morris (1990) have said that criminology has been a major constraining rather than creative influence for feminist writers and researchers. Another critique, Cain (1989) argued that courts, victims, lawyers, social workers could be objects of investigation however our explanations must reach beyond and encompass all of them, this in a sense argued that feminist criminology is not possible and it disrupts the other categories of criminology itself. Cains argument was that work in theoretical criminology should question the assumptions of traditional criminology and also examine how gender is constructed by the official bodies, however; she was not purely dismissive of feminist criminology. Carlen (1992) wa s similar sceptically however she was arguing for the potential within feminist scholarships which would help in transcending the limitations of criminology as a discipline. On the other hand, the left realist were critical and said critique is not consistent, that is to say, criticising criminology for its real essentialism in treating crime like a meaningful category yet on the other hand using terms like rape and child sexual abuse yet they may also not be subject to the same criticism. (Mathew and Young, 1992) Feminist criminology criticises theoretical criminology because it was constructed by men and for men. It is argued by Valier (2002) that it does not analytically explain the different patterns in crimes carried out by females. He further points out that most of the theories do not analytically explain patterns of crime by females; these theories will only show what the social scientists are finding out presently which is that they do not seek to explain human behaviour as they claim but only explain understandings of male behaviour. This is not good practice because it has instead created a single theoretical canopy for both women and men even when it is clearly evident that their social realistic are very different. (Valier, 2002) Frances Heidensohn (1987) looked at four different characteristics of many of the female offenders which had been the subject of recent research in the past decades. These characteristics would then be used to carry out analytical research on female criminology and also help understand female offending better. The four characteristics that she looked at included; Economic rationality, women were predominantly involved in property crimes which were motivated by the economic concerns. This was different from what the earlier portrayals of Lombroso and Pollak which understood female criminality to be illustrative of irrationality and the influence of biology. Second characteristic was that of heterogeneity of their offences whereby women commit less crimes as compared to men and are less likely to be recidivists or professional criminals which implies that they contribute less to the crime tariffs and also clarifies that crimes committed by males and females derive from different condit ions like social circumstances, differences in opportunities for both men and women and the socialisation process. The third characteristic is fear and impact of deviant stigma. This is whereby the criminalisation process has a differential impact on men and women. This is because female offending is less extensive than male offending, produces a greater sense of stigmatisation. The last characteristic was that of experience of double deviance and double jeopardy. Double deviance like being dubbed as unlike woman together with the being called a criminal produces double jeopardy. The criminal justice system will punish the crime but also seek to impose controls over women behaviour. (Heidensohn, 2006)

The Extraction And Purification Of Paracetamol Essay

The Extraction And Purification Of Paracetamol Essay Analysing the Quantity and Purity of Paracetamol Present in Different Formulations of the Commercial Medicine Aim The aim of this investigation was to determine the percentage by mass of pure paracetamol in formulations of branded paracetamol in 500mg tablets. Two techniques were used so as to determine this: -Extraction and purification of tablets by filtration and recrystallisation. -Hydrolysis of the drug under reflux followed by titration against ammonium cerium sulphate. In addition to this, the purity of the paracetamol was investigated by determination of melting point of the respective brands of paracetamol. Findings Using the extraction and purification procedure it was found that Tesco had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol, at 46.8%. Morrisons tablet percentage by mass was 44.6% while Superdrug had a percentage by mass of 37.8%. Using the reflux and titration procedure it was found that Superdrug had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol at 20.0%. The Tesco percentage by mass was 19.6% while Morissons was 18.5%. The melting point procedure concluded that all three crude samples had similar purity of paracetamol with melting point at 156oC. The melting point of the Morrisons recrystallised paracetamol was 168oC, Superdrug had a melting point of 165oC while Tesco had a melting point of 164oC. This shows that Morrisons had the highest purity of pure paracetamol followed by Superdrug and then Tesco. Underlying ChemistryHistory and Uses Paracetamol (C8H9NO2) (or acetaminophen) is the most common over the counter painkiller in the world. It was discovered in 1852 by Charles Fredric Gerhardt who later went on to discover aspirin. The drug is so popular due to the few side effects it has on the body and does not irritate the stomach like other commonly used drugs such as aspirin. The structure is as shown: Paracetamol is used for relief of headaches, fever, menstrual pain, back pain, toothache and other general pain; however it is ineffective against muscle pain as it possesses no anti-inflammatory properties. Non-opioid analgesics work by inhibiting an enzyme known as cyclooxygenase (COX). COX is a catalyst for the conversion of a fatty acid contained in cell walls—arachidonic acid—to substances known as prostaglandins. (tuftsjournal.tufts.edu.) Prostaglandins have many functions including the induction of pain. By reducing the production of prostaglandins the pain is relieved. Paracetamol does not affect the cause of the pain but rather combats the biochemical pathway which results in the feeling of pain. Prostaglandins also affect the hypothalamus in the brain, the centre which is responsible for the maintenance of our bodies internal environment despite changes to the external environment, i.e. homeostasis. The prostaglandins cause the body to raise its temperature, and hence by taking paracetamol the body temperature is lowered. Paracetamol is therefore classed as antipyretic as it lowers the body temperature. Due to these properties the drug is commonly used to combat flu and cold symptoms. The range of pain combatted by paracetamol alongside the fact that it has very few side effects has resulted in it being the most commonly used painkiller. Paracetamol is also popular because of the rate at which pain subsides from its use due to the rapid uptake in the body. Absorption: Rapidly and almost completely absorbed from the G.I. tract. Peak plasma concentrations are reached in 10-60 minutes.(labmed.yale.edu) Methodology Two techniques were used in the determination of the mass of active ingredient present in the tablets. The first was the extraction and purification of paracetamol from tablets. The second was an acid catalysed hydrolysis under reflux followed by titrations against ammonium cerium sulphate. The use of the melting point allowed the purity of the paracetamol to be determined. The extraction and purification of paracetamol This procedure extracted paracetamol from the tablets by crystallisation. The paracetamol tablets were crushed and dissolved in propanone at a raised temperature; this decreased the time required for the paracetamol to dissolve. The binding agents and fillers in the tablet are insoluble in propanone however the paracetamol is soluble. This results in the paracetamol forming a solution in the propanone while the other components of the tablet are left as insoluble residue. The solution was filtered to remove the residue. The filtrate was left to evaporate forming crystals of paracetamol. These crystals were then dissolved in hot water and then filtered through cotton wool to remove any binding agents left. This filtrate was left in the fridge and shards of paracetamol formed. This relies on the fact that paracetamol has a high solubility in hot water but a low one in cold water. This allows shards of paracetamol to form. The soluble impurities are only present to the level of a few percent and so never reach their limit of solubility and thus stay in solution. (Ellis, 2002) The pure recrystallised paracetamol was then dried and its mass measured. The percentage by mass was then calculated. Reflux and titrations This procedure required the paracetamol to be boiled under reflux for one hour with sulphuric acid. This acid catalysed hydrolysis broke down the paracetamol (an amide) into an amine (4-aminophenol) and a carboxylic acid (ethanoic acid.) The raised temperature was used so as thermally accelerate the reaction. The reaction is shown below: (Overall reaction) This reaction mechanism may be found in the appendix. The use of reflux apparatus ensured that the reaction vessel never boiled dry. This is because any vapour formed from heating in the reaction vessel was turned back into a liquid by condensation. The benefit of using a heating mantle was that it ensured that a constant temperature, heating the round bottomed flask over a greater surface area. This procedure produced 4-aminophenol. This has a hydroxyl group on carbon 1 and an amine group on the carbon 1. Since the nitrogen is attached to only one carbon it is a primary amine. The 4-aminophenol can then be oxidised using ammonium cerium sulphate, involving the loss of hydrogen from the 4-aminophenol using ferroin as an indicator. This produced iminoquinone. Only after all the 4-aminophenol has been oxidised will the cerium (IV) reagent oxidise the ferroin indicator from Fe2+ to Fe3+ (ferriin). (Ellis, 2002) This resulted in the colour change from red to yellow, as the red ferroin is oxidised to ferriin which is blue. This is shown in the diagram below When mixed with the ammonium cerium sulphate this produced a yellow colour which indicated the end point of the titration. A titration was also carried out without the test material being present and the difference between the values with the test species present and absent accounted for the mass of paracetamol present. The difference in volumes of titre required for the colour change is directly proportional to the mass of paracetamol present in the tablet (0.007560g per 1cm3 equivalent titre.) Melting Point By measuring the melting points of the given formulations, the purity of the paracetamol was able to be determined. Melting point apparatus worked by heating the species in a capillary tube which itself was inserted into a heating block. By looking through a lens at the species, the moment at which the species melted could be seen and then at this moment the reading on the thermometer could be viewed. When a substance is heated, there is an increase in entropy as the species is thermally excited. If enough energy is put into the substance, it results in a change of state, in this case solid to liquid. The three brands of paracetamol melting points were measured for the tablet, the crude and the recrystallised samples. Pure paracetamol is a white crystalline solid which melts at 169-171oC. (Ellis 2002). The impurities in the samples lower the melting points. The sample which was closest to the given melting point represents the purest sample of paracetamol. Procedures The Extraction and Purification of Paracetamol Please note this experiment was carried out twice for each brand and an average taken. This was then duplicated so as to improve the reliability. (This is shown in results as the replicate.) Paracetamol was extracted from three brands of paracetamol; Morrisons, Superdrug and Tesco. These procedures represent the procedure used for each brand. Two tablets were weighed using a balance (accurate to 2 D.P.) then crushed using a mortar and pestle. The ground tablets were placed in a beaker. 50cm3 of propanone was measured using a pipette. The propanone was used to rinse the mortar and pestle before adding it to the beaker. The beaker was left on a brisk stir at a low heat until the tablet was dissolved as far as possible. The insoluble material was the binding agents and fillers. Initially 20cm3 of propanone was used however it was found that the tablets did not dissolve fully. A Buchner Funnel was set up as shown (see left.) The insoluble material (binding agents and fillers) collects in the filter paper. The filtrate (propanone and paracetamol) is collected in the filtering flask. A little propanone was run through the filter paper so as to create a seal between the filter paper and the base as shown on the above diagram. This prevented the insoluble material from passing through the holes in the funnel. The content of the beaker was passed through the funnel and a little propanone was used to rinse the beaker. The filtrate was left in an evaporating basin overnight in an oven. This formed crude paracetamol crystals. The mass of the crystals was taken. The crystals were placed in a beaker and 20cm3 of hot water was added. The beaker was heated on a brisk stir until the paracetamol had dissolved. This was passed through a warmed wet piece of cotton wool in a warmed glass funnel. This was to prevent the paracetamol from recrystallising in the cotton during filtration. The filtrate was passed directly into a basin. The basin was placed in the fridge overnight to cool and to allow the crystals to form. These crystals were white. The recrystallised paracetamol in water was passed through a piece of fluted filter paper to collect the crystals. (Initially the paracetamol was filtered out of the water using a sintered glass crucible however this produced a lower yield as crystals were lost when using this technique. See table 22.) The filter paper and crystals were placed in an oven at room temperature overnight to allow the crystals to dry. These crystals were white. The dry mass of the crystals was measured. This procedure was replicated for each brand of paracetamol. Reflux and titrations Please note that this procedure was carried out once for each brand of paracetamol. This was then duplicated so as to improve the reliability. (This is shown in the results as the replicate.) The first stage of this procedure involved the acid hydrolysis of paracetamol: 15cm3 of 2 molar solution of sulphuric acid and 25cm3 of water were measured using a pipette and placed in a 100ml round bottomed flask. To this 0.30g of crushed (using mortar and pestle) paracetamol tablet was added, having measured the paracetamol using a balance (accurate to 2 D.P.) This was swirled and warmed until the tablet was dissolved. This was then boiled under reflux for one hour in a heating mantle as shown below: The paracetamol and sulphuric acid were placed nn the round bottomed flask. The solution turned from colourless to a light golden colour. The solution was cooled and 100cm3 of water was added. 20cm3 of the resulting solution was pipetted into a conical flask with 15cm3 of 2 molar Hydrochloric acid, 40cm3 of water and precisely 8 drops of ferroin indicator. This was then titrated against 0.1 molar solution of ammonium cerium sulphate until colour changed from a pink/peach colour to a cloudy yellow colour. (The colour change was not very obvious during this procedure. Therefore previous titration colours were kept beside the species to try to standardize the colour at which the end point of the titration was determined.) The titrations were repeated until two results were within 0.1cm3 of each other i.e. until two concordant results were obtained. The apparatus is as shown overleaf: The burette was filled with the yellow ammonium cerium sulphate solution and the conical flask contained the paracetamol acid mixture. This procedure was also repeated without the test material present. Melting Point During this procedure, the melting points of the recrystallised, crude and unaltered tablet forms of paracetamol were investigated. The sample of species was crushed into a powder using a mortar and pestle. Capillary tubes (1mm diameter, 10cm long) were sealed at one end using a Bunsen burner. This provided a place to hold the paracetamol when using the melting point apparatus. The capillary tube was placed turned open-side-down and pressed onto the paracetamol formulations. Then the closed end of the capillary tubes was gently tapped on the table to allow the paracetamol to fall to the closed end. This was then placed open-side-up into the metal heating block alongside a thermometer. The temperature was slowly increased using the thermostat on the melting point apparatus while the paracetamol was viewed through the magnifying glass on the apparatus. The point at which the paracetamol melted was then recorded. Results Initial Extraction and purification The crystals of the crude and recrystallised paracetamol were both white. The crude crystals were prismatic shaped while the recrystallised paracetamol formed long shards. Table 1 shows the mass of crude paracetamol from each tablet: Table 1 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 0.94 1.00 0.97 Morrisons 1.01 1.00 1.01 Superdrug 0.97 0.92 0.95 Table 2 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol from each tablet: Table 2 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 0.58 0.49 0.54 Morrisons 0.44 0.49 0.47 Superdrug 0.36 0.48 0.42 Table 3 shows the percentage by mass of crude paracetamol compared to the mass of two tablets (1.10g): Table 3 Brand Percentage of Crude Paracetamol (%) Tesco 88.2 Morrisons 91.8 Superdrug 86.4 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Table 4 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol compared to the respective mass of two tablets (1.10g): Table 4 Brand Percentage of pure Paracetamol (%) Tesco 49.1 Morrisons 42.7 Superdrug 38.2 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Reflux and titrations Table 5 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur without the test species present (paracetamol): Table 5 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 0.5 0.5 First 0.5 1.0 0.5 Second 1.0 1.5 0.5 Average Titre = (0.5+0.5)/2 = 0.5cm3 Table 6 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Tesco paracetamol: Table 6 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 8.6 8.6 First 8.6 15.8 7.2 Second 15.8 23.1 7.3 Average volume = (7.2+7.3)/2 = 7.25cm3 Amended titre = 7.25-0.5 = 6.75cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 6.75 x 0.007560 = 0.05103g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.05103g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.093555g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.093555/0.55) x 100 =17.0% Table 7 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Morrisons paracetamol: Table 7 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 7.4 7.4 First 7.4 14.4 7.0 Second 14.4 21.5 7.1 Average volume = (7.0+7.1)/2 = 7.05cm3 Amended titre = 7.05-0.5 = 6.55cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 6.55 x 0.007560 = 0.049518g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.049518g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.090783g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.090783/0.55) x 100 =16.5% Table 8 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Superdrug paracetamol: Table 8 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 9.7 9.7 First 9.7 18.6 8.9 Second 18.8 27.8 9.0 Average volume = (8.9+9.0)/2 = 8.95cm3 Amended titre = 8.95-0.5 = 8.45cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 8.45 x 0.007560 = 0.063882g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.063882g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.117117g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.117117/0.55) x 100 =21.3% Table 9 shows the melting points of the paracetamol: Table 9 Brand Melting Point (0C) Tablet Sample Crude Sample Recrystallised Sample Tesco 140 155 163 Morrisons 145 157 167 Superdrug 139 159 164 Replicate Extraction and purification The crystals of the crude and recrystallised paracetamol were both white. The crude crystals were prismatic shaped while the recrystallised paracetamol formed long shards. Table 10 shows the mass of crude paracetamol from each tablet: Table 10 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 1.00 0.98 0.99 Morrisons 1.00 1.04 1.02 Superdrug 1.01 0.97 0.99 Table 11 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol from each tablet: Table 11 Brand Mass (g) Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Tesco 0.51 0.46 0.49 Morrisons 0.53 0.49 0.51 Superdrug 0.40 0.42 0.41 Table 12 shows the percentage by mass of crude paracetamol compared to the mass of two tablets (1.10g) Table 12 Brand Percentage of crude Paracetamol (%) Tesco 90.0 Morrisons 92.7 Superdrug 90.0 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Table 13 shows the mass of recrystallised paracetamol compared to the mass of two tablets (1.10g): Table 13 Brand Percentage of pure Paracetamol (%) Tesco 44.5 Morrisons 46.4 Superdrug 37.3 (Calculations may be found in the appendix) Reflux and titrations Table 14 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur without the test species present (paracetamol): Table 14 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 0.5 0.5 First 0.5 1.1 0.6 Second 1.1 1.6 0.5 Average volume = (0.5+0.6)/2 = 0.55 cm3 Table 15 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Tesco paracetamol: Table 15 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 10.6 10.6 First 10.6 20.0 9.4 Second 20.0 29.3 9.3 Average volume = (9.3+9.4)/2 = 9.35cm3 Amended titre = 9.35-0.55 = 8.8cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 8.8 x 0.007560 = 0.066528g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.066528g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.121968g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.121968/0.55) x 100 =22.2% Table 16 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Morrisons paracetamol: Table 16 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 21.5 30.5 9.0 First 30.5 39.5 9.0 Second 39.5 47.6 8.1 Third 0.00 8.6 8.6 Fourth 8.6 17.3 8.7 Average volume = (8.7+8.6)/2 = 8.65cm3 Amended titre = 8.65-0.55 = 8.1cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 8.1 x 0.007560 = 0.061236g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.061236g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.112266g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.112266/0.55) x 100 =20.4% Table 17 shows the volume of Ammonium Cerium sulphate required for the colour change from red to yellow to occur using Superdrug paracetamol: Table 17 Titration Initial Titre (cm3) Final Titre (cm3) Volume of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate needed for the colour change (cm3) Rough 0.0 8.3 8.3 First 8.3 16.2 7.9 Second 16.2 24.2 8.0 Average volume = (7.9+8.0)/2 = 7.95cm3 Amended titre = 7.95-0.55 = 7.4cm3 As 1 cm3 of ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate = 0.007560g of Paracetamol 7.4 x 0.007560 = 0.055944g So, if 0.3g of tablet 0.055944g of pure Paracetamol Then, 0.55g of tablet 0.102564g of pure Paracetamol Percentage by mass (0.102564/0.55) x 100 =18.6% Table 18 shows the melting points of the paracetamol: Table 18 Brand Melting Point (0C) Tablet Sample Crude Sample Recrystallised Sample Tesco 143 156 165 Morrisons 144 155 168 Superdrug 141 153 166 Averages of Initial and replicate Table 19 shows percentage by mass of recrystallised paracetamol: Table 19 Percentage by mass% Brand Initial Replicate Average Tesco 49.1 44.5 46.8 Morrrisons 42.7 46.4 44.6 Superdrug 38.2 37.3 37.8 Table 20 shows percentage by mass of pure paracetamol determined from reflux and titrations: Table 20 Percentage by mass % Brand Initial Replicate Average Tesco 17.0 22.2 19.6 Morrisons 16.5 20.4 18.5 Superdrug 21.3 18.6 20.0 Table 21 shows the melting point of paracetamol of crude and recrystallised paracetamol: Table 21 Melting point (oC) Crude Recrystallised Brand Initial Replicate Average Initial Replicate Average Tesco 155 156 156 163 165 164 Morrisons 157 155 156 167 168 168 Superdrug 159 153 156 164 166 165 Table 22 shows the results using a sintered glass crucible rather than filter paper during the filtration of Tesco recrystallised paracetamol: Table 22 Sample 1 Sample 2 Mass of crystals (g) 0.31 0.12 Conclusions The aim of this investigation was to determine the percentage by mass of pure paracetamol in formulations of branded paracetamol in 500mg tablets. Two techniques were employed so as to determine this: -Extraction and purification of tablets by filtration and recrystallisation. -Hydrolysis of the drug under reflux followed by titration against ammonium cerium sulphate. In addition to this, the purity of the paracetamol was investigated by determination of melting point of the respective brands of paracetamol. The results of these procedures are discussed below. Extraction and purification Using this procedure it was found that Tesco had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol, at 46.8%. Morrisons tablet percentage by mass was 44.6% while Superdrug had a percentage by mass of 37.8%. Reflux and Titrations Using this procedure it was found that Superdrug had the greatest percentage by mass of the active ingredient, paracetamol at 20.0%. The Tesco percentage by mass was 19.6% while Morissons was 18.5%. Results were different for each respective brand of paracetamol and different between the two procedures. Melting Point The melting points of the crude paracetamol were all 156oC thus showing that all formulations of crude paracetamol had similar purity, and hence the first crystallization of the paracetamol was carried out very accurately. The melting point of the Morrisons recrystallised paracetamol was 168oC which compared well with the given melting point of 169-171oC. Superdrug had a melting point of 165oC while Tesco had a melting point of 164oc. This shows that Morrisons had the highest purity of pure paracetamol followed by Superdrug and then Tesco. Evaluation Evaluation of procedures Control of variables During the filtration and recrystallising process two tablets were used in each sample and two samples were taken. This, alongside the duplication of results, gives 8 tablets which were used in the determination using this method and an average taken. This increased the reliability of the results. During the procedures the same balances, burettes, flasks and pipettes were used so as to reduce the effects of error in these measurements. When titrations were carried out, a rough titration was initially done so as to determine the equivalence point. This was followed by accurate titrations. When two concurrent values were within 0.1cm3, an average was taken between these two values. The average was used to determine the mass of pure paracetamol greatly increasing the reliability of the results. Since the end point of the titration was not very obvious, previous titrations were kept aside so as to standardise the intensity of yellow in the solution, so that all titrations had the same end point colour. This increased the reliability of the titrations. All equipment used was cleaned using propanone to prevent chemicals from previous experiments contaminating this investigation. In addition to this the burettes and pipettes were rinsed with the solutions, before being filled with the same solution to prevent contamination. When using the balance, as far as possible, it was placed away from draughts and windows so as to prevent the wind causing error in the weighing of substances. Where possible, all reaction vessels and weighing receptacles were rinsed using a little of the liquid which would be used. This increased the yield of results, preventing the reactants being lost in the process. Modifications Initially, when dissolving the paracetamol in propanone, the tablet was not crushed however it took an inordinate time for the tablet to dissolve; by the time it had dissolved most of the propanone had evaporated The volume of propanone was increased from 20cm3 to 50cm3 because more paracetamol dissolved. This allowed a greater percentage of the paracetamol to be extracted from the tablets. Consequentially it took longer for the crude paracetamol crystals to form. Initially a sintered glass crucible was used to filter the recrystallised paracetamol. This resulted in the paracetamol being lost, so filter paper was fluted and used instead. This resulted in a greater mass of recrystallised paracetamol being collected. When the paracetamol was being added to sulphuric acid, initially it was unheated and just swirled, however not all the paracetamol dissolved and hence, the sulphuric acid was warmed with the paracetamol to dissolve the crushed tablet before being boiled under reflux. When using the ammonium cerium (IV) sulphate, it was found that if left for any length of time greater than one hour the solute came out of solution, therefore, before pouring the solution into the burette, it was stirred vigorously using a magnetic stirrer to ensure the same concentration of solution was used in every titration. Because of this, the burette was only set up immediately before use. Evaluation of results Both procedures resulted in significantly lower percentages than the mass of paracetamol in each tablet as stated on the box. The expected percentage by mass was expected to be 90.9%. This is calculated as shown: Mass of tablet – 0.55g Mass of paracetamol (on box) 0.50g (0.5/0.55) x 100 = 90.9% Generally the replicate compared well with the initial experiment, with a maximum difference of 4.6% by mass for the first procedure. For the second procedure there was a maximum difference of 5.2% by mass. This can be put down to errors in the equipment and human errors when carrying out procedures. The fact that both procedures indicated different formulations contained the most paracetamol, may be due to the fact that often paracetamol was taken from different blister packs, and hence from different batches, which may contain different masses of paracetamol. However human errors and errors in equipment are more likely to be to blame. It can also be broadly sai

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Statement of Purpose We are accessible only to a limited quantity of resources around us. Considering the current usage and availability of resources, it has become very important for us to use them as wisely as possible. As an industrial engineer my aim is to find ways to eliminate wastefulness and enhance the efficiency of the process or service being provided. I would like to enhance my knowledge and in order to achieve this, I wish to pursue my Master’s degree in Industrial Engineering at the Arizona State University. I aspire to do my PhD after my Masters to fulfil my long term career goal of carrying out postdoctoral industrial research while becoming a tenured professor. Throughout, my inclination has always been towards academics and I consistently strive to achieve the best. I attended one of the best schools in my city, National Public School, Bangalore. Be it in school or my college, I have always been very enthusiastic about learning something new. In 2010, I started my undergraduate degree course in Industrial Engineering and Management in the prestigious M.S. Ramaiah ...

Cultural theory and the meanings of money :: Business and Management Studies

Cultural theory and the meanings of money Couples and their money: theory and practice in personal finances Four perspectives draw on: * Economics and rational choice theory * Social structural approaches * Psychological approaches * Cultural theory and the meanings of money. According to classical economic theory money has four main functions: †¢it is a medium of exchange, †¢a store of value, †¢a unit of account, †¢a standard of deferred payment. Perspectives within economic theory relevant to personal finances: †¢fungibility This notion is standard in classical economic theory and means that money is considered to be neutral and interchangeable, so that any unit of wealth is substitutable for any other (McCloskey, 1987). †¢rational choice theory This assumes that people make reasoned choices in order to maximise their overall welfare or utility. Rational choice theory lays stress on the importance of information in facilitating the efficient working of markets and of consumer choice. Daniel: I have a high interest account with First Direct as well. And then I have another savings account which is slightly lower interest. The high interest savings account has a penalty on withdrawals, so I keep a sum of money in there stable which I don’t draw on. If I have extra spending, or I need to top up my current account in case I’m going overdrawn, that comes from the third, lower interest account which I keep for small amounts. When I have a surplus at the end of the month in my current account I transfer across to the high interest account as much as I can. Daniel’s economic rationality extended to credit cards and Air Miles. He explained about his American Express Gold Card: I use that for my purchases because I get Air Miles on that, so all my purchases I get Air Miles and I transfer that to my various Air Miles accounts. I originally got a Gold Card because they did a special offer, had one free for a year, and so I gave up after a year. Said ‘No thank you. I don’t want to pay for a card’. Oh well, another card arrives free for a year, so I said, ‘Fine’. Pahl, J. (2001) ‘Couples and their money: theory and practice in personal finances’, in R. Sykes, C.Bochel and N. R. Ellison, Social Policy Review 13, Policy Press Bristol. Rosie: If I’ve got to have dealings with them for money, I like to know that it’s only a certain number of hours†¦ I like restrictions of banking hours; I do quite like that. I’m old fashioned, completely opposite to Daniel. If he sees that something is wrong with one of

Upton Sinclair :: essays research papers

	At the turn of the century America was in the face of economic downfall. Laissez Faire Industrialism had been in place and citizens were at the disposal of big business. Poor working conditions and poverty were the norm in a time where Socialism was an irrelevant ideology. Big business was making the government rich. But according to Upton Sinclair and his "Conditions at the Slaughterhouse," unsafe and repulsive sanitary conditions were at play, putting thousands of carnivorous Americans and factory workers in danger of death, disease and poverty. Although America had expanded to be the most rapidly industrious nation in the world, few agree that it was worth the expense of its populous' health and well being. 	Upton Sinclair was among a swarm of Muckrakers that erupted during American industrialism. He was among many journalists to expose the wrongs of society and propose ways to fix it. But few muckrakers took their stories as deeply as Sinclair. His depiction of the terrible sanitary conditions at one specific meat packing plant in Chicago touched the publics stomachs rather that their hearts. Although he certainly wanted to give the public a view from the inside, public uproar was his among lesser expectation. The details regarding the unsanitary and disgusting conditions in meat packing factories appear to be background details of a much larger picture. Sinclair's main fight in his "Conditions at the Slaughterhouse" was to bring about the ideology of Socialism and how government needed to step in and take control. 	The grotesque ways in which the meat was being processed in these plants also relates to the ways in which workers were being treated as well. People working in these plants were about as valuable to the owners as the individual pigs themselves. Although they were not necessarily slaves, they were often foreigners and unskilled workers who had no choice but to work for low wages under poor living conditions. Most of these people lived in the plants themselves or in small tenant housings nearby. The beaten workers in the plants found it hard to work in such deprivation and to them their only way to continue living was to drink their problems away. For alcohol seemed to be their only form of enjoyment. 	 	Americans of the 19th century were supposedly granted freedoms to live and work to provide a family and live the American dream with prosperity and happiness. Upton Sinclair :: essays research papers 	At the turn of the century America was in the face of economic downfall. Laissez Faire Industrialism had been in place and citizens were at the disposal of big business. Poor working conditions and poverty were the norm in a time where Socialism was an irrelevant ideology. Big business was making the government rich. But according to Upton Sinclair and his "Conditions at the Slaughterhouse," unsafe and repulsive sanitary conditions were at play, putting thousands of carnivorous Americans and factory workers in danger of death, disease and poverty. Although America had expanded to be the most rapidly industrious nation in the world, few agree that it was worth the expense of its populous' health and well being. 	Upton Sinclair was among a swarm of Muckrakers that erupted during American industrialism. He was among many journalists to expose the wrongs of society and propose ways to fix it. But few muckrakers took their stories as deeply as Sinclair. His depiction of the terrible sanitary conditions at one specific meat packing plant in Chicago touched the publics stomachs rather that their hearts. Although he certainly wanted to give the public a view from the inside, public uproar was his among lesser expectation. The details regarding the unsanitary and disgusting conditions in meat packing factories appear to be background details of a much larger picture. Sinclair's main fight in his "Conditions at the Slaughterhouse" was to bring about the ideology of Socialism and how government needed to step in and take control. 	The grotesque ways in which the meat was being processed in these plants also relates to the ways in which workers were being treated as well. People working in these plants were about as valuable to the owners as the individual pigs themselves. Although they were not necessarily slaves, they were often foreigners and unskilled workers who had no choice but to work for low wages under poor living conditions. Most of these people lived in the plants themselves or in small tenant housings nearby. The beaten workers in the plants found it hard to work in such deprivation and to them their only way to continue living was to drink their problems away. For alcohol seemed to be their only form of enjoyment. 	 	Americans of the 19th century were supposedly granted freedoms to live and work to provide a family and live the American dream with prosperity and happiness.

The Da Vinci Code Chapter 56-59

CHAPTER 56 Sophie stared at Teabing a long moment and then turned to Langdon. â€Å"The Holy Grail is a person?† Langdon nodded. â€Å"A woman, in fact.† From the blank look on Sophie's face, Langdon could tell they had already lost her. He recalled having a similar reaction the first time he heard the statement. It was not until he understood the symbology behind the Grail that the feminine connection became clear. Teabing apparently had a similar thought. â€Å"Robert, perhaps this is the moment for the symbologist to clarify?† He went to a nearby end table, found a piece of paper, and laid it in front of Langdon. Langdon pulled a pen from his pocket. â€Å"Sophie, are you familiar with the modern icons for male and female?† He drew the common male symbol The Da Vinci Code The Da Vinci Code â€Å"Of course,† she said. â€Å"These,† he said quietly,† are not the original symbols for male and female. Many people incorrectly assume the male symbol is derived from a shield and spear, while the female symbol represents a mirror reflecting beauty. In fact, the symbols originated as ancient astronomical symbols for the planet-god Mars and planet-goddess Venus. The original symbols are far simpler.† Langdon drew another icon on the paper. The Da Vinci Code â€Å"This symbol is the original icon for male,†he told her. â€Å"A rudimentary phallus.† â€Å"Quite to the point,† Sophie said. â€Å"As it were,† Teabing added. Langdon went on. â€Å"This icon is formally known as the blade, and it represents aggression and manhood. In fact, this exact phallus symbol is still used today on modern military uniforms to denote rank.† â€Å"Indeed.† Teabing grinned. â€Å"The more penises you have, the higher your rank. Boys will be boys.† Langdon winced. â€Å"Moving on, the female symbol, as you might imagine, is the exact opposite.† He drew another symbol on the page. â€Å"This is called the chalice.† The Da Vinci Code Sophie glanced up, looking surprised. Langdon could see she had made the connection. â€Å"The chalice,† he said,† resembles a cup or vessel, and more important, it resembles the shape of a woman's womb. This symbol communicates femininity, womanhood, and fertility.† Langdon looked directly at her now.† Sophie, legend tells us the Holy Grail is a chalice – a cup. But the Grail's description as a chaliceis actually an allegory to protect the true nature of the Holy Grail. That is to say, the legend uses the chalice as a metaphor for something far more important.† â€Å"A woman,† Sophie said. â€Å"Exactly.† Langdon smiled. â€Å"The Grail is literally the ancient symbol for womanhood, and the Holy Grail represents the sacred feminine and the goddess, which of course has now been lost, virtually eliminated by the Church. The power of the female and her ability to produce life was once very sacred, but it posed a threat to the rise of the predominantly male Church, and so the sacred feminine was demonized and called unclean. It was man, not God, who created the concept of â€Å"original sin,† whereby Eve tasted of the apple and caused the downfall of the human race. Woman, once the sacred giver of life, was now the enemy.† â€Å"I should add,† Teabing chimed,† that this concept of woman as life-bringer was the foundation of ancient religion. Childbirth was mystical and powerful. Sadly, Christian philosophy decided to embezzle the female's creative power by ignoring biological truth and making man the Creator. Genesis tells us that Eve was created from Adam's rib. Woman became an offshoot of man. And a sinful one at that. Genesis was the beginning of the end for the goddess.† â€Å"The Grail,† Langdon said,† is symbolic of the lost goddess. When Christianity came along, the old pagan religions did not die easily. Legends of chivalric quests for the lost Grail were in fact stories of forbidden quests to find the lost sacred feminine. Knights who claimed to be† searching for the chalice† were speaking in code as a way to protect themselves from a Church that had subjugated women, banished the Goddess, burned nonbelievers, and forbidden the pagan reverence for the sacred feminine.† Sophie shook her head. â€Å"I'm sorry, when you said the Holy Grail was a person, I thought you meant it was an actual person.† â€Å"It is,† Langdon said. â€Å"And not just any person,† Teabing blurted, clambering excitedly to his feet. â€Å"A woman who carried with her a secret so powerful that, if revealed, it threatened to devastate the very foundation of Christianity!† Sophie looked overwhelmed. â€Å"Is this woman well known in history?† â€Å"Quite.† Teabing collected his crutches and motioned down the hall. â€Å"And if we adjourn to the study, my friends, it would be my honor to show you Da Vinci's painting of her.† Two rooms away, in the kitchen, manservant Remy Legaludec stood in silence before a television. The news station was broadcasting photos of a man and woman†¦ the same two individuals to whom Remy had just served tea. CHAPTER 57 Standing at the roadblock outside the Depository Bank of Zurich, Lieutenant Collet wondered what was taking Fache so long to come up with the search warrant. The bankers were obviously hiding something. They claimed Langdon and Neveu had arrived earlier and were turned away from the bank because they did not have proper account identification. So why won't they let us inside for a look? Finally, Collet's cellular phone rang. It was the command post at the Louvre. â€Å"Do we have a search warrant yet?† Collet demanded. â€Å"Forget about the bank, Lieutenant,† the agent told him. â€Å"We just got a tip. We have the exact location where Langdon and Neveu are hiding.† Collet sat down hard on the hood of his car. â€Å"You're kidding.† â€Å"I have an address in the suburbs. Somewhere near Versailles.† â€Å"Does Captain Fache know?† â€Å"Not yet. He's busy on an important call.† â€Å"I'm on my way. Have him call as soon as he's free.† Collet took down the address and jumped in his car. As he peeled away from the bank, Collet realized he had forgotten to ask who had tipped DCPJ off to Langdon's location. Not that it mattered. Collet had been blessed with a chance to redeem his skepticism and earlier blunders. He was about to make the most high-profile arrest of his career. Collet radioed the five cars accompanying him. â€Å"No sirens, men. Langdon can't know we're coming.† Forty kilometers away, a black Audi pulled off a rural road and parked in the shadows on the edge of a field. Silas got out and peered through the rungs of the wrought-iron fence that encircled the vast compound before him. He gazed up the long moonlit slope to the chateau in the distance. The downstairs lights were all ablaze. Odd for this hour, Silas thought, smiling. The information the Teacher had given him was obviously accurate. I will not leave this house without the keystone, he vowed. I will not fail the bishop and the Teacher. Checking the thirteen-round clip in his Heckler Koch, Silas pushed it through the bars and let it fall onto the mossy ground inside the compound. Then, gripping the top of the fence, he heaved himself up and over, dropping to the ground on the other side. Ignoring the slash of pain from his cilice, Silas retrieved his gun and began the long trek up the grassy slope. CHAPTER 58 Teabing's† study† was like no study Sophie had ever seen. Six or seven times larger than even the most luxurious of office spaces, the knight's cabinet de travail resembled an ungainly hybrid of science laboratory, archival library, and indoor flea market. Lit by three overhead chandeliers, the boundless tile floor was dotted with clustered islands of worktables buried beneath books, artwork, artifacts, and a surprising amount of electronic gear – computers, projectors, microscopes, copy machines, and flatbed scanners. â€Å"I converted the ballroom,† Teabing said, looking sheepish as he shuffled into the room. â€Å"I have little occasion to dance.† Sophie felt as if the entire night had become some kind of twilight zone where nothing was as she expected. â€Å"This is all for your work?† â€Å"Learning the truth has become my life's love,† Teabing said. â€Å"And the Sangreal is my favorite mistress.† The Holy Grail is a woman, Sophie thought, her mind a collage of interrelated ideas that seemed to make no sense. â€Å"You said you have a picture of this woman who you claim is the Holy Grail.† â€Å"Yes, but it is not I who claim she is the Grail. Christ Himself made that claim.† â€Å"Which one is the painting?† Sophie asked, scanning the walls.† Hmmm†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Teabing made a show of seeming to have forgotten. â€Å"The Holy Grail. The Sangreal. The Chalice.† He wheeled suddenly and pointed to the far wall. On it hung an eight-foot-long print of The Last Supper, the same exact image Sophie had just been looking at. â€Å"There she is!† Sophie was certain she had missed something. â€Å"That's the same painting you just showed me.† He winked. â€Å"I know, but the enlargement is so much more exciting. Don't you think?† Sophie turned to Langdon for help. â€Å"I'm lost.† Langdon smiled. â€Å"As it turns out, the Holy Grail does indeed make an appearance in The LastSupper.Leonardo included her prominently.† â€Å"Hold on,† Sophie said. â€Å"You told me the Holy Grail is a woman.The Last Supper is a painting of thirteen men.† â€Å"Is it?† Teabing arched his eyebrows. â€Å"Take a closer look.† Uncertain, Sophie made her way closer to the painting, scanning the thirteen figures – Jesus Christ in the middle, six disciples on His left, and six on His right. â€Å"They're all men,† she confirmed. â€Å"Oh?† Teabing said. â€Å"How about the one seated in the place of honor, at the right hand of the Lord?† Sophie examined the figure to Jesus' immediate right, focusing in. As she studied the person's face and body, a wave of astonishment rose within her. The individual had flowing red hair, delicate folded hands, and the hint of a bosom. It was, without a doubt†¦ female. â€Å"That's a woman!† Sophie exclaimed. Teabing was laughing. â€Å"Surprise, surprise. Believe me, it's no mistake. Leonardo was skilled at painting the difference between the sexes.† Sophie could not take her eyes from the woman beside Christ. The Last Supper is supposed to be thirteen men.Who is this woman? Although Sophie had seen this classic image many times, she had not once noticed this glaring discrepancy. â€Å"Everyone misses it,† Teabing said. â€Å"Our preconceived notions of this scene are so powerful that our mind blocks out the incongruity and overrides our eyes.† â€Å"It's known as skitoma,†Langdon added. â€Å"The brain does it sometimes with powerful symbols.† â€Å"Another reason you might have missed the woman,† Teabing said,† is that many of the photographs in art books were taken before 1954, when the details were still hidden beneath layers of grime and several restorative repaintings done by clumsy hands in the eighteenth century. Now, at last, the fresco has been cleaned down to Da Vinci's original layer of paint.† He motioned to the photograph. â€Å"Et voila!† Sophie moved closer to the image. The woman to Jesus' right was young and pious-looking, with a demure face, beautiful red hair, and hands folded quietly. This is the woman who singlehandedly could crumble the Church? â€Å"Who is she?† Sophie asked. â€Å"That, my dear,† Teabing replied,† is Mary Magdalene.† Sophie turned. â€Å"The prostitute?† Teabing drew a short breath, as if the word had injured him personally. â€Å"Magdalene was no such thing. That unfortunate misconception is the legacy of a smear campaign launched by the early Church. The Church needed to defame Mary Magdalene in order to cover up her dangerous secret – her role as the Holy Grail.† â€Å"Her role?† â€Å"As I mentioned,† Teabing clarified,† the early Church needed to convince the world that the mortal prophet Jesus was a divine being. Therefore, any gospels that described earthly aspects of Jesus' life had to be omitted from the Bible. Unfortunately for the early editors, one particularly troubling earthly theme kept recurring in the gospels. Mary Magdalene.† He paused. â€Å"More specifically, her marriage to Jesus Christ.† â€Å"I beg your pardon?† Sophie's eyes moved to Langdon and then back to Teabing. â€Å"It's a matter of historical record,† Teabing said,† and Da Vinci was certainly aware of that fact. The Last Supper practically shouts at the viewer that Jesus and Magdalene were a pair.† Sophie glanced back to the fresco. â€Å"Notice that Jesus and Magdalene are clothed as mirror images of one another.† Teabing pointed to the two individuals in the center of the fresco. Sophie was mesmerized. Sure enough, their clothes were inverse colors. Jesus wore a red robe and blue cloak; Mary Magdalene wore a blue robe and red cloak. Yin and yang. â€Å"Venturing into the more bizarre,† Teabing said,† note that Jesus and His bride appear to be joined at the hip and are leaning away from one another as if to create this clearly delineated negative space between them.† Even before Teabing traced the contour for her, Sophie saw it – the indisputable V shape at the focal point of the painting. It was the same symbol Langdon had drawn earlier for the Grail, the chalice, and the female womb. â€Å"Finally,† Teabing said,† if you view Jesus and Magdalene as compositional elements rather than as people, you will see another obvious shape leap out at you.† He paused. â€Å"A letter of the alphabet.† Sophie saw it at once. To say the letter leapt out at her was an understatement. The letter was suddenly all Sophie could see. Glaring in the center of the painting was the unquestionable outline of an enormous, flawlessly formed letter M. â€Å"A bit too perfect for coincidence, wouldn't you say?† Teabing asked. Sophie was amazed. â€Å"Why is it there?† Teabing shrugged. â€Å"Conspiracy theorists will tell you it stands for Matrimonio or Mary Magdalene. To be honest, nobody is certain. The only certainty is that the hidden M is no mistake. Countless Grail-related works contain the hidden letter M – whether as watermarks, underpaintings, or compositional allusions. The most blatant M, of course, is emblazoned on the altar at Our Lady of Paris in London, which was designed by a former Grand Master of the Priory of Sion, Jean Cocteau.† Sophie weighed the information. â€Å"I'll admit, the hidden M's are intriguing, although I assume nobody is claiming they are proof of Jesus' marriage to Magdalene.† â€Å"No, no,† Teabing said, going to a nearby table of books. â€Å"As I said earlier, the marriage of Jesus and Mary Magdalene is part of the historical record.† He began pawing through his book collection. â€Å"Moreover, Jesus as a married man makes infinitely more sense than our standard biblical view of Jesus as a bachelor.† â€Å"Why?† Sophie asked. â€Å"Because Jesus was a Jew,† Langdon said, taking over while Teabing searched for his book,† and the social decorum during that time virtually forbid a Jewish man to be unmarried. According to Jewish custom, celibacy was condemned, and the obligation for a Jewish father was to find a suitable wife for his son. If Jesus were not married, at least one of the Bible's gospels would have mentioned it and offered some explanation for His unnatural state of bachelorhood.† Teabing located a huge book and pulled it toward him across the table. The leather-bound edition was poster-sized, like a huge atlas. The cover read: The Gnostic Gospels.Teabing heaved it open, and Langdon and Sophie joined him. Sophie could see it contained photographs of what appeared to be magnified passages of ancient documents – tattered papyrus with handwritten text. She did not recognize the ancient language, but the facing pages bore typed translations. â€Å"These are photocopies of the Nag Hammadi and Dead Sea scrolls, which I mentioned earlier,† Teabing said. â€Å"The earliest Christian records. Troublingly, they do not match up with the gospels in the Bible.† Flipping toward the middle of the book, Teabing pointed to a passage. â€Å"The Gospel of Philip is always a good place to start.† Sophie read the passage: And the companion of the Saviour is Mary Magdalene. Christ loved her more than all the disciples and used to kiss her often on her mouth. The rest of the disciples were offended by it and expressed disapproval. They said to him,† Why do you love her more than all of us?† The words surprised Sophie, and yet they hardly seemed conclusive. â€Å"It says nothing of marriage.† â€Å"Au contraire.† Teabing smiled, pointing to the first line. â€Å"As any Aramaic scholar will tell you, the word companion, in those days, literally meant spouse.† Langdon concurred with a nod. Sophie read the first line again. And the companion of the Saviour is Mary Magdalene. Teabing flipped through the book and pointed out several other passages that, to Sophie's surprise, clearly suggested Magdalene and Jesus had a romantic relationship. As she read the passages, Sophie recalled an angry priest who had banged on her grandfather's door when she was a schoolgirl. â€Å"Is this the home of Jacques Sauniere?† the priest had demanded, glaring down at young Sophie when she pulled open the door. â€Å"I want to talk to him about this editorial he wrote.† The priest held up a newspaper. Sophie summoned her grandfather, and the two men disappeared into his study and closed the door. My grandfather wrote something in the paper? Sophie immediately ran to the kitchen and flipped through that morning's paper. She found her grandfather's name on an article on the second page. She read it. Sophie didn't understand all of what was said, but it sounded like the French government, under pressure from priests, had agreed to ban an American movie called The Last Temptation of Christ, which was about Jesus having sex with a lady called Mary Magdalene. Her grandfather's article said the Church was arrogant and wrong to ban it. No wonder the priest is mad, Sophie thought. â€Å"It's pornography! Sacrilege!† the priest yelled, emerging from the study and storming to the front door. â€Å"How can you possibly endorse that! This American Martin Scorsese is a blasphemer, and the Church will permit him no pulpit in France!† The priest slammed the door on his way out. When her grandfather came into the kitchen, he saw Sophie with the paper and frowned. â€Å"You're quick.† Sophie said,† You think Jesus Christ had a girlfriend?† â€Å"No, dear, I said the Church should not be allowed to tell us what notions we can and can't entertain.† â€Å"Did Jesus have a girlfriend?† Her grandfather was silent for several moments. â€Å"Would it be so bad if He did?† Sophie considered it and then shrugged. â€Å"I wouldn't mind.† Sir Leigh Teabing was still talking. â€Å"I shan't bore you with the countless references to Jesus and Magdalene's union. That has been explored ad nauseum by modern historians. I would, however, like to point out the following.† He motioned to another passage. â€Å"This is from the Gospel of Mary Magdalene.† Sophie had not known a gospel existed in Magdalene's words. She read the text: And Peter said,† Did the Saviour really speak with a woman without our knowledge? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did he prefer her to us?† And Levi answered,† Peter, you have always been hot-tempered. Now I see you contending against the woman like an adversary. If the Saviour made her worthy, who are you indeed to reject her? Surely the Saviour knows her very well. That is why he loved her more than us.† â€Å"The woman they are speaking of,† Teabing explained,† is Mary Magdalene. Peter is jealous of her.† â€Å"Because Jesus preferred Mary?† â€Å"Not only that. The stakes were far greater than mere affection. At this point in the gospels, Jesus suspects He will soon be captured and crucified. So He gives Mary Magdalene instructions on how to carry on His Church after He is gone. As a result, Peter expresses his discontent over playing second fiddle to a woman. I daresay Peter was something of a sexist.† Sophie was trying to keep up. â€Å"This is Saint Peter. The rock on which Jesus built His Church.† â€Å"The same, except for one catch. According to these unaltered gospels, it was not Peter to whom Christ gave directions with which to establish the Christian Church. It was Mary Magdalene.† Sophie looked at him. â€Å"You're saying the Christian Church was to be carried on by a woman?† â€Å"That was the plan. Jesus was the original feminist. He intended for the future of His Church to be in the hands of Mary Magdalene.† â€Å"And Peter had a problem with that,† Langdon said, pointing to The Last Supper. â€Å"That's Peter there. You can see that Da Vinci was well aware of how Peter felt about Mary Magdalene.† Again, Sophie was speechless. In the painting, Peter was leaning menacingly toward Mary Magdalene and slicing his blade-like hand across her neck. The same threatening gesture as in Madonna of the Rocks! â€Å"And here too,† Langdon said, pointing now to the crowd of disciples near Peter. â€Å"A bit ominous, no?† Sophie squinted and saw a hand emerging from the crowd of disciples. â€Å"Is that hand wielding a dagger?† â€Å"Yes. Stranger still, if you count the arms, you'll see that this hand belongs to†¦ no one at all. It's disembodied. Anonymous.† Sophie was starting to feel overwhelmed. â€Å"I'm sorry, I still don't understand how all of this makes Mary Magdalene the Holy Grail.† â€Å"Aha!† Teabing exclaimed again. â€Å"Therein lies the rub!† He turned once more to the table and pulled out a large chart, spreading it out for her. It was an elaborate genealogy. â€Å"Few people realize that Mary Magdalene, in addition to being Christ's right hand, was a powerful woman already.† Sophie could now see the title of the family tree. THE TRIBE OF BENJAMIN â€Å"Mary Magdalene is here,† Teabing said, pointing near the top of the genealogy. Sophie was surprised. â€Å"She was of the House of Benjamin?† â€Å"Indeed,† Teabing said. â€Å"Mary Magdalene was of royal descent.† â€Å"But I was under the impression Magdalene was poor.† Teabing shook his head. â€Å"Magdalene was recast as a whore in order to erase evidence of her powerful family ties.† Sophie found herself again glancing at Langdon, who again nodded. She turned back to Teabing. â€Å"But why would the early Church care if Magdalene had royal blood?† The Briton smiled. â€Å"My dear child, it was not Mary Magdalene's royal blood that concerned the Church so much as it was her consorting with Christ, who also had royal blood. As you know, the Book of Matthew tells us that Jesus was of the House of David. A descendant of King Solomon – King of the Jews. By marrying into the powerful House of Benjamin, Jesus fused two royal bloodlines, creating a potent political union with the potential of making a legitimate claim to the throne and restoring the line of kings as it was under Solomon.† Sophie sensed he was at last coming to his point. Teabing looked excited now. â€Å"The legend of the Holy Grail is a legend about royal blood. When Grail legend speaks of ‘the chalice that held the blood of Christ'†¦ it speaks, in fact, of Mary Magdalene – the female womb that carried Jesus' royal bloodline.† The words seemed to echo across the ballroom and back before they fully registered in Sophie's mind. Mary Magdalene carried the royal bloodline of Jesus Christ?† But how could Christ have a bloodline unless†¦ ?† She paused and looked at Langdon. Langdon smiled softly. â€Å"Unless they had a child.† Sophie stood transfixed.† Behold,† Teabing proclaimed,† the greatest cover-up in human history. Not only was Jesus Christ married, but He was a father. My dear, Mary Magdalene was the Holy Vessel. She was the chalice that bore the royal bloodline of Jesus Christ. She was the womb that bore the lineage, and the vine from which the sacred fruit sprang forth!† Sophie felt the hairs stand up on her arms. â€Å"But how could a secret that big be kept quiet all of these years?† â€Å"Heavens!† Teabing said. â€Å"It has been anything but quiet! The royal bloodline of Jesus Christ is the source of the most enduring legend of all time – the Holy Grail. Magdalene's story has been shouted from the rooftops for centuries in all kinds of metaphors and languages. Her story is everywhere once you open your eyes.† â€Å"And the Sangreal documents?† Sophie said. â€Å"They allegedly contain proof that Jesus had a royal bloodline?† â€Å"They do.† â€Å"So the entire Holy Grail legend is all about royal blood?† â€Å"Quite literally,† Teabing said. â€Å"The word Sangreal derives from San Greal – or Holy Grail. But in its most ancient form, the word Sangreal was divided in a different spot.† Teabing wrote on a piece of scrap paper and handed it to her. She read what he had written. Sang Real Instantly, Sophie recognized the translation. Sang Real literally meant Royal Blood. CHAPTER 59 The male receptionist in the lobby of the Opus Dei headquarters on Lexington Avenue in New York City was surprised to hear Bishop Aringarosa's voice on the line. â€Å"Good evening, sir.† â€Å"Have I had any messages?† the bishop demanded, sounding unusually anxious.† Yes, sir. I'm very glad you called in. I couldn't reach you in your apartment. You had an urgent phone message about half an hour ago.† â€Å"Yes?† He sounded relieved by the news. â€Å"Did the caller leave a name?† â€Å"No, sir, just a number.† The operator relayed the number. â€Å"Prefix thirty-three? That's France, am I right?† â€Å"Yes, sir. Paris. The caller said it was critical you contact him immediately.† â€Å"Thank you. I have been waiting for that call.† Aringarosa quickly severed the connection. As the receptionist hung up the receiver, he wondered why Aringarosa's phone connection sounded so crackly. The bishop's daily schedule showed him in New York this weekend, and yet he sounded a world away. The receptionist shrugged it off. Bishop Aringarosa had been acting very strangely the last few months. My cellular phone must not have been receiving, Aringarosa thought as the Fiat approached the exit for Rome's Ciampino Charter Airport. The Teacher was trying to reach me.Despite Aringarosa's concern at having missed the call, he felt encouraged that the Teacher felt confident enough to call Opus Dei headquarters directly. Things must have gone well in Paris tonight. As Aringarosa began dialing the number, he felt excited to know he would soon be in Paris. I'll beon the ground before dawn.Aringarosa had a chartered turbo prop awaiting him here for the short flight to France. Commercial carriers were not an option at this hour, especially considering the contents of his briefcase. The line began to ring. A female voice answered. â€Å"Direction Centrale Police Judidaire.† Aringarosa felt himself hesitate. This was unexpected. â€Å"Ah, yes†¦ I was asked to call this number?† â€Å"Qui etes-vous?† the woman said. â€Å"Your name?† Aringarosa was uncertain if he should reveal it. The French Judicial Police? â€Å"Your name, monsieur?† the woman pressed. â€Å"Bishop Manuel Aringarosa.† â€Å"Un moment.† There was a click on the line. After a long wait, another man came on, his tone gruff and concerned. â€Å"Bishop, I am glad I finally reached you. You and I have much to discuss.†